DENDRIMERS IN OCULAR DRUG DELIVERY: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i1.56820Keywords:
Ocular drug delivery, Dendrimers, Nanocarriers, PAMAM dendrimers, Ocular barriersAbstract
The anatomical and physiological complexity of the eye significantly hinders drug delivery to both the anterior and posterior segments, complicating the treatment of various ocular diseases. Although conventional ophthalmic formulations, primarily topical eye drops, are widely used, their bioavailability remains low. Recent advancements in nanotechnology have introduced dendrimers as promising nanoscale drug carriers for ocular therapy. Dendrimers can enhance drug solubility, permeability, stability, and retention owing to their unique branched architecture, multivalent surface functionality, and capacity for precise drug targeting. This review discusses the anatomical barriers to ocular drug delivery, innovative strategies to overcome them, and highlights various dendrimer generations, types, synthesis methods, and their applications in treating eye disorders such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and uveitis. Furthermore, it explores clinical studies, patents and their ocular applications/rationale, and regulatory hurdles associated with the clinical translation of dendrimer-based therapeutics. Despite, promising preclinical data, manufacturing and regulatory challenges remain major hurdles for their widespread clinical use. Dendrimers hold great promise as advanced ocular drug delivery systems, with the potential to improve treatment efficacy for a wide range of vision-impairing disorders.
References
1. Singh M, Bharadwaj S, Lee KE, Kang SG. Therapeutic nanoemulsions in ophthalmic drug administration: concept in formulations and characterization techniques for ocular drug delivery. J Control Release. 2020;328:895-916. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.10.025, PMID 33069743.
2. Ahmed S, Amin MM, Sayed S. Ocular drug delivery: a comprehensive review. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2023;24(2):66. doi: 10.1208/s12249-023-02516-9, PMID 36788150.
3. Bairagi RD, Reon RR, Hasan MM, Sarker S, Debnath D, Rahman MT. Ocular drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology: a comprehensive review for the treatment of eye diseases. Discov Nano. 2025;20(1):75. doi: 10.1186/s11671-025-04234-6, PMID 40317427.
4. Allyn MM, Luo RH, Hellwarth EB, Swindle Reilly KE. Considerations for polymers used in ocular drug delivery. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;8:787644. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2021.787644, PMID 35155469.
5. Qin C, Wen S, Zhu S, Liu D, Chen S, Qie J. Are poly (amidoamine) dendrimers safe for ocular applications? Toxicological evaluation in ocular cells and tissues. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2020;36(10):715-24. doi: 10.1089/jop.2020.0078, PMID 33121321.
6. Gorantla S, Rapalli VK, Waghule T, Singh PP, Dubey SK, Saha RN. Nanocarriers for ocular drug delivery: current status and translational opportunity. RSC Adv. 2020;10(46):27835-55. doi: 10.1039/D0RA04971A, PMID 35516960.
7. Yetisgin AA, Sivakumar PM, Cetinel S. Current state and potential of polymersomes as ocular drug delivery systems. Nanoscale. 2025;17(24):14458-76. doi: 10.1039/D5NR01273B, PMID 40471086.
8. Li S, Chen L, Fu Y. Nanotechnology-based ocular drug delivery systems: recent advances and future prospects. J Nanobiotechnology. 2023;21(1):232. doi: 10.1186/s12951-023-01992-2, PMID 37480102.
9. Wang J, Li B, Huang D, Norat P, Grannonico M, Cooper RC. Nano-in-nano dendrimer gel particles for efficient topical delivery of antiglaucoma drugs into the eye. Chem Eng J. 2021;425:130498. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.130498, PMID 34121919.
10. Akhter MH, Ahmad I, Alshahrani MY, Al Harbi AI, Khalilullah H, Afzal O. Drug delivery challenges and current progress in nanocarrier-based ocular therapeutic system. Gels. 2022;8(2):82. doi: 10.3390/gels8020082, PMID 35200463.
11. Dhull A, Yu C, Wilmoth AH, Chen M, Sharma A, Yiu S. Dendrimers in corneal drug delivery: recent developments and translational opportunities. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(6):1591. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061591, PMID 37376040.
12. Wang J, Li B, Qiu L, Qiao X, Yang H. Dendrimer-based drug delivery systems: history challenges and latest developments. J Biol Eng. 2022;16(1):18. doi: 10.1186/s13036-022-00298-5, PMID 35879774.
13. Suri R, Beg S, Kohli K. Target strategies for drug delivery bypassing ocular barriers. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2020;55:101389. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101389.
14. Bisht R, Mandal A, Jaiswal JK, Rupenthal ID. Nanocarrier mediated retinal drug delivery: overcoming ocular barriers to treat posterior eye diseases. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2018;10(2):e1473. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1473, PMID 28425224.
15. Khare A, Grover K, Pawar P, Singh I. Mucoadhesive polymers for enhancing retention in ocular drug delivery: a critical review. Rev Adhes Adhesives. 2014;2(4):467-502. doi: 10.7569/RAA.2014.097310.
16. Gote V, Ansong M, Pal D. Prodrugs and nanomicelles to overcome ocular barriers for drug penetration. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2020;16(10):885-906. doi: 10.1080/17425255.2020.1803278, PMID 32729364.
17. Al Qaysi ZK, Beadham IG, Schwikkard SL, Bear JC, Al Kinani AA, Alany RG. Sustained release ocular drug delivery systems for glaucoma therapy. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2023;20(7):905-19. doi: 10.1080/17425247.2023.2219053, PMID 37249548.
18. Villanueva J, Villanueva L. Overcoming barriers: controlled-release systems as vectors the posterior segment of the eye approach as a model. Ophthalmology Res. 2018;8(1):1-10. doi: 10.9734/OR/2018/38862.
19. Huang D, Chen YS, Rupenthal ID. Overcoming ocular drug delivery barriers through the use of physical forces. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2018;126:96-112. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.09.008, PMID 28916492.
20. Alonso MJ. Nanomedicines for overcoming biological barriers. Biomed Pharmacother. 2004;58(3):168-72. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2004.01.007, PMID 15082339.
21. Sanchez Lopez E, Espina M, Doktorovova S, Souto EB, Garcia ML. Lipid nanoparticles (SLN, NLC): overcoming the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye part I Barriers and determining factors in ocular delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2017;110:70-5. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.10.009, PMID 27789358.
22. Xia Y, Zhang Y, Du Y, Wang Z, Cheng L, Du Z. Comprehensive dry eye therapy: overcoming ocular surface barrier and combating inflammation oxidation and mitochondrial damage. J Nanobiotechnology. 2024;22(1):233. doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-02503-7, PMID 38725011.
23. Wu H, Xu Y, Cai M, You L, Liu J, Dong X. Design of an L-valine-modified nanomicelle based drug delivery system for overcoming ocular surface barriers. Pharmaceutics. 2022;14(6):1277. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14061277, PMID 35745853.
24. Duncan TJ, Baba K, Oie Y, Nishida K. A novel method using quantum dots for testing the barrier function of cultured epithelial cell sheets. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(4):2215-23. doi: 10.1167/iovs.14-15579, PMID 25736795.
25. Sharma OP, Patel V, Mehta T. Nanocrystal for ocular drug delivery: hope or hype. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2016;6(4):399-413. doi: 10.1007/s13346-016-0292-0, PMID 27165145.
26. Rathore AS, Verma S, Aggarwal K, Singh A. Proniosomes: a novel vesicular carrier for ocular drug targeting. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2025;18(7):42-51. doi: 10.22159/ajpcr.2025v18i7.54552.
27. Thakur Singh RR, Tekko I, McAvoy K, McMillan H, Jones D, Donnelly RF. Minimally invasive microneedles for ocular drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2017;14(4):525-37. doi: 10.1080/17425247.2016.1218460, PMID 27485251.
28. Radhakrishnan K, Sonali N, Moreno M, Nirmal J, Fernandez AA, Venkatraman S. Protein delivery to the back of the eye: barriers carriers and stability of anti-VEGF proteins. Drug Discov Today. 2017;22(2):416-23. doi: 10.1016/j.drudis.2016.10.015, PMID 27818255.
29. Rusciano D. A personal scientific journey in ophthalmology: twenty-five years of translating research into novel therapies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025;18(6):883. doi: 10.3390/ph18060883, PMID 40573278.
30. Kundu S, Kumari G, Srinivasarao DA. Emerging drug delivery strategies for glaucoma therapy: focus on nanoparticles and stimuli-responsive systems. RSC Pharm. 2025;2(5):1050-77. doi: 10.1039/d5pm00068h.
31. Lee DA, Higginbotham EJ. Glaucoma and its treatment: a review. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2005;62(7):691-9. doi: 10.1093/ajhp/62.7.691, PMID 15790795.
32. Weinreb RN, Aung T, Medeiros FA. The pathophysiology and treatment of glaucoma: a review. JAMA. 2014;311(18):1901-11. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.3192, PMID 24825645.
33. Lam D, Rao SK, Ratra V, Liu Y, Mitchell P, King J. Cataract. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015;1:15014. doi: 10.1038/nrdp.2015.14, PMID 27188414.
34. Jonas JB, Cheung CM, Panda Jonas S. Updates on the epidemiology of age-related macular degeneration. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2017;6(6):493-7. doi: 10.22608/APO.2017251, PMID 28906084.
35. Fine SL, Berger JW, Maguire MG, Ho AC. Age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(7):483-92. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200002173420707, PMID 10675430.
36. Stitt AW, Curtis TM, Chen M, Medina RJ, McKay GJ, Jenkins A. The progress in understanding and treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2016;51:156-86. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.08.001, PMID 26297071.
37. Duh EJ, Sun JK, Stitt AW. Diabetic retinopathy: current understanding mechanisms and treatment strategies. JCI Insight. 2017;2(14):e93751. doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.93751, PMID 28724805.
38. Marshall LL, Roach JM. Treatment of dry eye disease. Consult Pharm. 2016;31(2):96-106. doi: 10.4140/TCP.n.2016.96, PMID 26842687.
39. Pflugfelder SC, De Paiva CS. The pathophysiology of dry eye disease: what we know and future directions for research. Ophthalmology. 2017;124(11S):S4-13. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.07.010, PMID 29055361.
40. Azari AA, Barney NP. Conjunctivitis: a systematic review of diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2013;310(16):1721-9. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.280318, PMID 24150468.
41. Singh N, Mazumder R, Monika M, Sakshi S, Khan F, Kumar B. Development in therapeutic strategies for allergic conjunctivitis. Trends Immunother. 2023;7(1):2025. doi: 10.24294/ti.v7.i1.2025.
42. Neri P, Perez Y, Pichi F. Precision medicine in uveitis: redefining treatment optimization through biomarkers and tailored therapies. Int Ophthalmol. 2025;45(1):41. doi: 10.1007/s10792-025-03413-9, PMID 39856474.
43. Munoz Fernandez S, Martin Mola E. Uveitis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2006;20(3):487-505. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2006.03.008, PMID 16777578.
44. Ancona Lezama D, Dalvin LA, Shields CL. Modern treatment of retinoblastoma: a 2020 review. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(11):2356-65. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_721_20, PMID 33120616.
45. Dimaras H, Kimani K, Dimba EA, Gronsdahl P, White A, Chan HS. Retinoblastoma. Lancet. 2012;379(9824):1436-46. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61137-9, PMID 22414599.
46. Bennett JL. Optic neuritis. Continuum. 2019;25(5):1236-64. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000768.
47. Tsai TH, Lin CW, Chan LW, Tew TB, Chen TC. Neuroprotective effects of novel treatments on acute optic neuritis-a meta-analysis. Biomedicines. 2022;10(1):192. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines10010192, PMID 35052875.
48. Lee GA, Hirst LW. Ocular surface squamous neoplasia. Surv Ophthalmol. 1995;39(6):429-50. doi: 10.1016/S0039-6257(05)80054-2, PMID 7660300.
49. Hollhumer R, Williams S, Michelow P. Ocular surface squamous neoplasia: management and outcomes. Eye (Lond). 2021;35(6):1562-73. doi: 10.1038/s41433-021-01422-3, PMID 33564137.
50. Munavalli BB, Naik SR, Torvi AI, Kariduraganavar MY. Dendrimers. In: Jafar Mazumder MA, Sheardown H, Al Ahmed A. Functional polymers. Berlin: Springer Nature; 2019. p. 289-345. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-95987-0_9.
51. Caminade AM. Dendrimers an emerging opportunity in personalized medicine? J Pers Med. 2022;12(8):1334. doi: 10.3390/jpm12081334, PMID 36013283.
52. Svenson S, Tomalia DA. Dendrimers in biomedical applications reflections on the field. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005;57(15):2106-29. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2005.09.018, PMID 16305813.
53. Baig T, Nayak J, Dwivedi V, Singh A, Srivastava A, Tripathi PK. A review about dendrimers: synthesis types characterization and applications. Int J Adv Pharm Biol Chem. 2015;4(1):44-59.
54. Najafi F, Salami Kalajahi M, Roghani Mamaqani H. A review on synthesis and applications of dendrimers. J Iran Chem Soc. 2021;18(3):503-17. doi: 10.1007/s13738-020-02053-3.
55. Tung NP, Lim WM, Liew YK, Lim CJ, Then YY, Cheong KW. Recent advances in nanomedicine for ocular drug delivery. Biomater Transl. 2025. doi: 10.12336/bmt.25.00022.
56. Kesharwani P, Tekade RK, Jain NK. Dendrimer generational nomenclature: the need to harmonize. Drug Discov Today. 2015;20(5):497-9. doi: 10.1016/j.drudis.2014.12.015, PMID 25578746.
57. Maiti PK, Cagın T, Wang G, Goddard WA. Structure of PAMAM dendrimers: generations 1 through 11. Macromolecules. 2004;37(16):6236-54. doi: 10.1021/ma035629b.
58. Bharadwaj P, Roullin VG, Chain JL. Crossing the blood brain barrier: advances in dendrimer-based nanocarriers for central nervous system delivery. Nanoscale. 2025;17(40):23202-27. doi: 10.1039/d5nr02548f, PMID 41031431.
59. Jain V, Maingi V, Maiti PK, Bharatam PV. Molecular dynamics simulations of PPI dendrimer drug complexes. Soft Matter. 2013;9(28):6482-96. doi: 10.1039/c3sm50434d.
60. Kaur D, Jain K, Mehra NK, Kesharwani P, Jain NK. A review on comparative study of PPI and PAMAM dendrimers. J Nanopart Res. 2016;18(6):146. doi: 10.1007/s11051-016-3423-0.
61. Wang D, Imae T, Miki M. Reprint of fluorescence emission from PAMAM and PPI dendrimers. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2007;312(1):8-13. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9797(07)00550-4, PMID 17547920.
62. Jain S, Kaur A, Puri R, Utreja P, Jain A, Bhide M. Poly propyl ether imine (PETIM) dendrimer: a novel non-toxic dendrimer for sustained drug delivery. Eur J Med Chem. 2010;45(11):4997-5005. doi: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2010.08.006, PMID 20805013.
63. Sadler K, Tam JP. Peptide dendrimers: applications and synthesis. J Biotechnol. 2002;90(3-4):195-229. doi: 10.1016/S1389-0352(01)00061-7, PMID 12071226.
64. Kesharwani P, Gothwal A, Iyer AK, Jain K, Chourasia MK, Gupta U. Dendrimer nanohybrid carrier systems: an expanding horizon for targeted drug and gene delivery. Drug Discov Today. 2018;23(2):300-14. doi: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.06.009, PMID 28697371.
65. Romagnoli B, Hayes W. Chiral dendrimers from architecturally interesting hyperbranched macromolecules to functional materials. J Mater Chem. 2002;12(4):767-99. doi: 10.1039/b110218b.
66. Rajasekhar Reddy RR, Raghupathi KR, Torres DA, Thayumanavan S. Stimuli sensitive amphiphilic dendrimers. New J Chem. 2012;36(2):340-9. doi: 10.1039/c2nj20879b, PMID 24039387.
67. Zhu Y, Liu C, Pang Z. Dendrimer-based drug delivery systems for brain targeting. Biomolecules. 2019;9(12):790. doi: 10.3390/biom9120790, PMID 31783573.
68. Durairaj C, Kadam RS, Chandler JW, Hutcherson SL, Kompella UB. Nanosized dendritic polyguanidilyated translocators for enhanced solubility permeability and delivery of gatifloxacin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51(11):5804-16. doi: 10.1167/iovs.10-5388, PMID 20484584.
69. Bravo Osuna I, Vicari-de-la-Torre M, Andres Guerrero V, Sanchez Nieves J, Guzman Navarro M, De La Mata FJ. Novel water-soluble mucoadhesive carbosilane dendrimers for ocular administration. Mol Pharm. 2016;13(9):2966-76. doi: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00182, PMID 27149661.
70. Holden CA, Tyagi P, Thakur A, Kadam R, Jadhav G, Kompella UB. Polyamidoamine dendrimer hydrogel for enhanced delivery of antiglaucoma drugs. Nanomedicine. 2012;8(5):776-83. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2011.08.018, PMID 21930109.
71. Yao W, Sun K, Mu H, Liang N, Liu Y, Yao C. Preparation and characterization of puerarin-dendrimer complexes as an ocular drug delivery system. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2010;36(9):1027-35. doi: 10.3109/03639041003610799, PMID 20545508.
72. Kambhampati SP, Mishra MK, Mastorakos P, Oh Y, Lutty GA, Kannan RM. Intracellular delivery of dendrimer triamcinolone acetonide conjugates into microglial and human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2015;95(B):239-49. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.02.013, PMID 25701805.
73. Yavuz B, Pehlivan SB, Vural I, Unlu N. In vitro/in vivo evaluation of dexamethasone PAMAM dendrimer complexes for retinal drug delivery. J Pharm Sci. 2015;104(11):3814-23. doi: 10.1002/jps.24588, PMID 26227825.
74. Kalomiraki M, Thermos K, Chaniotakis NA. Dendrimers as tunable vectors of drug delivery systems and biomedical and ocular applications. Int J Nanomedicine. 2016;11:1-12. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S93069, PMID 26730187.
75. Wronska N, Majoral JP, Appelhans D, Bryszewska M, Lisowska K. Synergistic effects of anionic/cationic dendrimers and levofloxacin on antibacterial activities. Molecules. 2019;24(16):2894. doi: 10.3390/molecules24162894, PMID 31395831.
76. Prajapati RN, Prajapati SK, Singh N, Gupta R. Polyamidoamine dendrimer-mediated formulation development and in vitro-in vivo evaluation of ketorolac. Asian J Pharm. 2018;12(2):S713-21. doi: 10.22377/ajp.v12i02.2419.
77. Ho MN, Bach LG, Nguyen TH, Ho MH, Nguyen DH, Nguyen CK. Pegylated poly(amidoamine) dendrimers-based drug loading vehicles for delivering carboplatin in treatment of various cancerous cells. J Nanopart Res. 2019;21(2):43. doi: 10.1007/s11051-019-4486-5.
78. Carta F, Osman SM, Vullo D, Gullotto A, Winum JY, Alothman ZA. Poly(amidoamine) dendrimers with carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity and antiglaucoma action. J Med Chem. 2015;58(9):4039-45. doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b00383, PMID 25849626.
79. Yogaraj V, Gautham G, Akshata C, Manikandan R, Murugan E, Arumugam M. Quaternary ammonium poly (amidoamine) dendrimeric encapsulated nanocurcumin efficiently prevents cataract of rat pups through regulation of pro-inflammatory gene expression. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2020;58:101785. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101785.
80. Yandrapu SK, Kanujia P, Chalasani KB, Mangamoori L, Kolapalli RV, Chauhan A. Development and optimization of thiolated dendrimer as a viable mucoadhesive excipient for the controlled drug delivery: an acyclovir model formulation. Nanomedicine. 2013;9(4):514-22. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2012.10.005, PMID 23117047.
81. Kambhampati SP, Kannan RM. Dendrimer nanoparticles for ocular drug delivery. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2013;29(2):151-65. doi: 10.1089/jop.2012.0232, PMID 23410062.
82. Vandamme TF, Brobeck L. Poly(amidoamine) dendrimers as ophthalmic vehicles for ocular delivery of pilocarpine nitrate and tropicamide. J Control Release. 2005;102(1):23-38. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2004.09.015, PMID 15653131.
83. Alshammari RA, Aleanizy FS, Aldarwesh A, Alqahtani FY, Mahdi WA, Alquadeib B. Retinal delivery of the protein kinase C-β inhibitor ruboxistaurin using non-invasive nanoparticles of polyamidoamine dendrimers. Pharmaceutics. 2022;14(7):1444. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071444, PMID 35890338.
84. Cerofolini L, Baldoneschi V, Dragoni E, Storai A, Mamusa M, Berti D. Synthesis and binding monitoring of a new nanomolar PAMAM-based matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor (MMPIs). Bioorg Med Chem. 2017;25(2):523-7. doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.11.028, PMID 27914947.
85. Sherje AP, Jadhav M, Dravyakar BR, Kadam D. Dendrimers: a versatile nanocarrier for drug delivery and targeting. Int J Pharm. 2018;548(1):707-20. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.07.030, PMID 30012508.
86. Kirkpatrick GJ, Plumb JA, Sutcliffe OB, Flint DJ, Wheate NJ. Evaluation of anionic half generation 3.5-6.5 poly (amidoamine) dendrimers as delivery vehicles for the active component of the anticancer drug cisplatin. J Inorg Biochem. 2011;105(9):1115-22. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2011.05.017, PMID 21704583.
87. Bhadra D, Bhadra S, Jain S, Jain NK. A pegylated dendritic nanoparticulate carrier of fluorouracil. Int J Pharm. 2003;257(1-2):111-24. doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(03)00132-7, PMID 12711167.
88. Duncan R, Izzo L. Dendrimer biocompatibility and toxicity. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005;57(15):2215-37. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2005.09.019, PMID 16297497.
89. Lin X, Zhou Y, LV K, Wu W, Chen C. Nanomedicine-based ophthalmic drug delivery systems for the treatment of ocular diseases. Int J Nanomedicine. 2025;20:9221-49. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S532074, PMID 40718639.
90. Wang J, Li B, Qiu L, Qiao X, Yang H. Dendrimer-based drug delivery systems: history challenges and latest developments. J Biol Eng. 2022;16(1):18. doi: 10.1186/s13036-022-00298-5, PMID 35879774.
91. Boas U, Heegaard PM. Dendrimers in drug research. Chem Soc Rev. 2004;33(1):43-63. doi: 10.1039/b309043b, PMID 14737508.
92. Lin H, Liu Y, Kambhampati SP, Hsu CC, Kannan RM, Yiu SC. Subconjunctival dendrimer-drug therapy for the treatment of dry eye in a rabbit model of induced autoimmune dacryoadenitis. Ocul Surf. 2018;16(4):415-23. doi: 10.1016/j.jtos.2018.05.004, PMID 29777869.
93. Loiseau A, Raiche Marcoux G, Maranda C, Bertrand N, Boisselier E. Animal models in eye research: focus on corneal pathologies. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(23):16661. doi: 10.3390/ijms242316661, PMID 38068983.
94. Yavuz B, Bozdag Pehlivan S, Sumer Bolu B, Nomak Sanyal R, Vural I, Unlu N. Dexamethasone PAMAM dendrimer conjugates for retinal delivery: preparation characterization and in vivo evaluation. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2016;68(8):1010-20. doi: 10.1111/jphp.12587, PMID 27283886.
95. Gupta U, Agashe HB, Asthana A, Jain NK. A review of in vitro-in vivo investigations on dendrimers: the novel nanoscopic drug carriers. Nanomedicine. 2006;2(2):66-73. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2006.04.002, PMID 17292117.
96. Mignani S, Shi X, Cena V, Shcharbin D, Bryszewska M, Majoral JP. In vivo therapeutic applications of phosphorus dendrimers: state of the art. Drug Discov Today. 2021;26(3):677-89. doi: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.11.034, PMID 33285297.
97. Edelhauser HF, Rowe Rendleman CL, Robinson MR, Dawson DG, Chader GJ, Grossniklaus HE. Ophthalmic drug delivery systems for the treatment of retinal diseases: basic research to clinical applications. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51(11):5403-20. doi: 10.1167/iovs.10-5392, PMID 20980702.
98. Ashvattha Therapeutics. Ashvattha therapeutics announces first patient enrolled in expanded phase 1/2 study of imaging agent 18FOP-801 in additional neurological indications. Redwood City, CA: Ashvattha Therapeutics; 2024 Feb 22. Available from: https://avttx.com/ashvattha-therapeutics-announces-first-patient-enrolled-in-expanded-phase-1-2-study-of-imaging-agent-18f-op-801-in-additional-neurological-indications/. [Last accessed on 04 Oct 2025].
99. National Library of Medicine (US). A phase 2 study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of OP-101 in patients with COVID-19. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2020 Apr 27. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04321980.
100. National Library of Medicine (US). A study to evaluate the safety tolerability and pharmacokinetics of D-4517.2 after subcutaneous administration in healthy participants. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2021 Oct 5. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05105607. [Last accessed on 04 Oct 2025].
101. National Library of Medicine (US). A phase 2 study of subcutaneous migaldendranib (D-4517.2) in subjects with neovascular age-related macular degeneration or diabetic macular edema. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2022 23 May. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05387837. [Last accessed on 04 Oct 2025].
102. Pignatello R, Almeida H, Santonocito D, Puglia C. New challenges in ocular drug delivery. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16(6):794. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16060794, PMID 38931915.
103. Chauhan A, Fitzhenry L, Serro AP. Recent advances in ophthalmic drug delivery. Pharmaceutics. 2022;14(10):2075. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14102075, PMID 36297511.
104. Alamos Musre S, Beltran Chacana D, Moyano J, Marquez Miranda V, Duarte Y, Miranda Rojas S. From structure to function: the promise of PAMAM dendrimers in biomedical applications. Pharmaceutics. 2025;17(7):927. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics17070927, PMID 40733135.
105. Rajan PB, Koilpillai J, Narayanasamy D. Advancing ocular medication delivery with nano-engineered solutions: a comprehensive review of innovations obstacles and clinical impact. Cureus. 2024;16(8):e66476. doi: 10.7759/cureus.66476, PMID 39247042.
106. Mahaling B, Baruah N, Dinabandhu A. Drug delivery systems for infectious eye diseases: advancements and prospects. JNT. 2024;5(4):133-66. doi: 10.3390/jnt5040010.
107. Ashique S, Mishra N, Mohanto S, Gowda BH, Kumar S, Raikar AS. Overview of processed excipients in ocular drug delivery: opportunities so far and bottlenecks. Heliyon. 2024;10(1):e23810. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23810, PMID 38226207.
108. Wang W, Wang N, Zhao X, Su X, Liu Z. Recent advancements in polymer science for retinal diseases: new frontiers in drug delivery systems. APL Bioeng. 2025;9(2):020902. doi: 10.1063/5.0264382, PMID 40584817.
109. Rawat V, Dewangan S. Nanotechnology advancements in treating ocular infectious diseases: a paradigm shift in therapeutic strategies. Int J Adv Res Eng Sci Manag. 2023;11(12):231143. doi: 10.56025/IJARESM.2023.1112231143.
110. Savvidou G, Ellas S, Efstathopoulos EP. Nanomedicine: pioneering a new frontier in neuro-ophthalmology. Recent Prog Mater. 2024;6(3):1-17. doi: 10.21926/rpm.2403022.
111. Souto EB, Dias Ferreira J, Lopez Machado A, Ettcheto M, Cano A, Camins Espuny AC. Advanced formulation approaches for ocular drug delivery: state of the art and recent patents. Pharmaceutics. 2019;11(9):460. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11090460, PMID 31500106.
112. Tang Z, Fan X, Chen Y, Gu P. Ocular nanomedicine. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2022;9(15):e2003699. doi: 10.1002/advs.202003699, PMID 35150092.
113. Wu KY, Tan K, Akbar D, Choulakian MY, Tran SD. A new era in ocular therapeutics: advanced drug delivery systems for uveitis and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(7):1952. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15071952, PMID 37514137.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 SHALU VERMA, VIVEK SILORI, PRASHANT KUMAR, MUNEESH KANAUJAYA
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.